This page provides an overview of basic practices and examples for citing sources using APA citation style. It includes the following sections:
For complete guidance and examples, use either:
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition
by
The official APA style website also provides instructions for many of its citation style and grammar practices.
APA is the American Psychological Association's author-date citation system for citing and documenting sources. It is most used in the social sciences like psychology, education, business, and criminal justice.
In APA, each cited source should appear as a brief in-text citation within your project that leads to a reference list entry with more complete publication information for the source.
Each reference list entry provides the author, date, title, and source of the work, but there will be slight variations to these elements based on the type of source you are working with, as outlined in the table below.
Core Elements for Journal Articles |
Core Elements for Books |
Core Elements for Electronic Sources |
| Author(s) | Author(s) | Author(s) |
| Year of publication | Year of publication | Date of publication |
| Article title | Title of Book | Title of page |
| Journal title | Publisher name | Website name |
| Volume & issue information | URL | |
| Page numbers | ||
| Retrieval Information (DOI or URL) |
APA uses the (author, date) format for in-text citations. Following this format, you generally:
Depending on what you are citing, you may need to adjust or add to this template, such as in the cases of having more than one author, having missing source elements, citing multiple sources, citing a specific part of the source, if quoting the source directly, or if using a secondary source.
Below are instructions and examples for creating in-text citations for sources with differing numbers of authors.
An in-text citation for a work with one author consists of the author's last name and year of publication (Author, date).
Example:
The characters of Billy Parham and John Grady Cole represent the bridge between the traditional mythology of the American West and the cruelty of its reality (McCarthy, 1998).
For a work with two authors, the last names of both authors are separated by an ampersand, and the year of publication follows (Author 1 & Author 2, date).
Example:
The study showed that telemedicine can be helpful to deliver services to MS patients during the COVID-19 pandemic (Alnajashi & Jabbad, 2020).
For three or more authors, list the first author's last name followed by et al., and the year of publication (Author 1 et al., date).
Example:
The research showed that children exposed to trauma at an early age had more positive adolescent outcomes with research based, early interventions (Sanders et al., 2020).
Organizations or institutions may sometimes be credited as the author of a work instead of an individual. Generally, use the full name of the group in your citations. You may choose to use an abbreviation if the group is well known by that abbreviation or if it will be repeated at least 3 times. You must provide the full name of the group the first time you mention them, followed by the abbreviation, and then use only the abbreviation in the citations that follow.
Examples:
(Georgia Institute of Technology, 2021)
(American Psychological Association, [APA], 2018)
If you have authors whose last names are the same, add their first initial to the in-text citation to differentiate between them.
Examples:
(A. Smith, 1998).
(E. Smith, 2003).
Works that cannot be recovered by your audience appear only as in-text citations, as personal communications. This includes personal interviews, emails, text, messages, live speeches, livestreams, unrecorded class lectures, and similar works. Give the initial(s) as well as the surname of the communicator, add the words personal communication, and give an exact date, including the month and day.
Examples:
(A. N. Jones, personal communication, March 18, 2016).
L. J. Smith (personal communication, September 20, 2015) said it was the best experience of her life.
When a work has no identified author, cite the first two or three words of the source title followed by the year. Italicize the title of a periodical or book, but use double quotation marks around the title of an article or chapter. Use Anonymous as the author only if Anonymous is designated on the source.
Examples:
…as previously identified by the author (Language use, 1991).
…article on language use (“World languages,” 1993).
(Anonymous, 2021).
For works with no date, write "n.d" in parentheses in place of the year.
Example:
(Smith, n.d.)
If a work does not have page numbers but you are quoting directly from it, provide another way of locating the quoted part in the source. Options include providing a heading or section name, a paragraph number, or combining headings, section names, and paragraph numbers. Count the paragraphs if they are not numbered on the source, and use the abbreviation para. for paragraph.
Examples:
(Johnson, 2014, para. 3)
(Dunlap, 2024, Smoking section)
If you are citing more than one source in a single in-text citation, within parentheses, place all works in alphabetical order, separated by a semicolon.
Example:
(Phillips, 2014; Teller 2016)
If you are citing multiple works by the same author in the same citation, use the author's name only once, and order each work chronologically by its publication date. If sources have the same author and the same publication date, add a lowercase letter after the year to distinguish them.
Examples:
(Phillips, 2014, 2016, 2021)
(Orwig, 2019a, 2019b).
To cite a specific page or other part of a source, add information about the part to your in-text citation. This might be pages, paragraphs, sections, chapters, timestamps, tables, figures, footnotes, or something else.
Examples:
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018, p. 3)
(Horvath, n.d., paras. 4-7)
(Armstrong, 2025, Chapter 11)
(Institute for Family Health, 2020, 01:01:05)
(Hamilton, 2022, Table 3)
(Thompson, 2013, slide 9)
When quoting directly from a source, add the page number(s) to the in-text citation as such: (Author, date, p. #). Place quotations around the sentence if the quotation is short (less than 40 words).
Example:
“Those who cannot see must rely upon what has gone before” (McCarthy, 1998, p. 10).
Quotations that are 40 or more words long are called block quotations. Quotation marks are not used with block quotations. Instead, the quote will start on a new line with a 0.5 indent from the left margin. The block quotation will be double-spaced like the rest of the paper. The in-text citation will follow the last word of the quote after the punctuation as such (Author, date, p. #).
Example:
The relationship of the Tsar to the Russian peasantry is described as follows:
In the mind of the ordinary peasant the Tsar was not just a kingly ruler but a god on earth. He thought of him as a father-figure who knew all the peasants personally by name, understood their problems in all their minute details, and, if it were not for the evil boyars who surrounded him, would satisfy their demands. (Figis, 1996, p. 103)
For quotes that span across pages, use the abbreviation pp. and separate the page numbers with a dash.
Example:
"Here were the origins of the totalitarian world-view. Although neither would have liked to admit it, there was much in common between Lenin and Tolstoy" (Figes, 1996, pp. 254-255).
If the quote appears on pages that are not sequential, separate the page numbers with a dash.
Example:
"As in 1917, the drift towards authoritarian government under Putin was enabled by the weakness of the middle classes and public institutions in post-Soviet Russia" (Figes, 1996, pp. 791, 793).
When a work shares information from another previously published work, it is known as a secondary source. Try to cite original sources directly whenever possible. However, you may cite the secondary source if the original source is unavailable. To do so, acknowledge the author of the original work in your text, but give the source you are using (the secondary source) in your reference list. In the in-text citation, use the phrase "as cited in" before the secondary source's authors and date in parentheses.
Example:
As Villa points out, "Perhaps the conflict seems so strong because the stakes are so low" (as cited in Affleck, et al., 1996).
Authors can be anyone who played a primary role in the creation of a work, including editors, directors, principal investigators, podcast hosts, and so on. An author could be an individual, multiple people, a group, or a combination of people and groups. When you cannot determine who the author of a work is, treat the work as having no author. To format the author element:
For up to 20 authors, list the last names and initials of each author. Separate an author's initials from additional author names with a comma, even when there are only two authors. Place an ampersand before the final author's name.
Basic Template:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., Author, C. C., Author, D. D., Author, E. E., & Author, F. F., ... & Author, T. T. (Publication date). Citation continues with remaining elements...
For 21 authors or more, list the last names and initials for the first 19 authors. After the 19th author, insert an ellipsis (...) and end with the final listed author's last name and initials. There should not be more than 20 authors listed in a reference list entry.
Basic Template:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., Author, C. C., Author, D. D., Author, E. E., Author, F. F., Author, G. G., Author, H. H., Author, I. I., Author, J. J., Author, K. K., Author, L. L., Author, M. M., Author N. N., Author, O. O., Author, P. P., Author, Q. Q., Author R. R., Author, S. S.,... Author, Z. Z. (Publication date). Citation continues with remaining elements...
Personal interviews, emails, texts, messages, live speeches, livestreams, unrecorded class lectures, and other personal communications that cannot be retrieved by your audience should be cited as an in-text citation only. Do not include them as a source in your reference list.
Skip the author and start the entry with the title, then provide the date and remaining source information.
The publication date of a source may appear as:
The formatting of dates can vary according to the type of source you are working with. Most references include only the year of publication, but use more specific dates for works that are published more frequently (like news articles or blogs). If working with a month, day, or season as well as a year, put the year first, followed by a comma, and then the month and date or season.
Examples:
(2020, August 26).
(2020, Spring/Summer).
Additionally:
Provide a retrieval date for an online source when citing a work that is likely or meant to change, so that your reader understands the version of the work they retrieve may be different from the version you used. If needed, the retrieval date appears before the url.
Example:
Retrieved January 12, 2021, from https://www.url.com
For works with no date, write “n.d.” in parentheses following the author's name. Provide the title and remaining source information. Treat works with only a reviewed date as having no date.
Example:
Walker, J. R. (n.d.). Citation continues with remaining elements...
Titles are formatted differently depending on whether the work can stand alone or if the work is part of a greater whole.
For works that stand alone (such as whole books, reports, videos, films, TV series, podcasts, social media, and works on websites):
For a work that is a part of a greater whole (such as an edited book chapter, a journal, magazine, or newspaper article, or TV and podcast episodes):
After the author and date, describe the work in square brackets. In addition:
Example:
[Map showing the damage severity of Hurricane Ian in Florida]
The source element informs the reader about where they can retrieve the cited work. Source elements are formatted differently depending on whether the work can stand alone or if the work is part of a greater whole.
For works that can stand alone, the source is the publisher, plus a DOI (digital object identifier) or URL, if present. If the author is the same as the publisher, omit the publisher element to avoid repetition. Do not include business designations in the publisher's name.
For works that are part of a greater whole, the source is the greater whole, plus a DOI or URL if present.
Observe the rules for formatting titles outlined earlier in either case. Additional location information may also need to be included in the reference, such as edition, volume, issue, article, or page numbers.
For separately authored works found in anthologies, include the page numbers of where your source is located in the book. Be sure to use the abbreviations “p.” or “pp.” before page numbers.
Journals, magazines, newspapers, and blog sources often include issue, volume, or article numbers. To format these elements:
Omit any of the above elements if they are not present in the work.
Examples:
5(16), 27-42, 46.
2(8), Article e7340112.
Only retrievable works should be included in the reference list. If the content you cited is no longer retrievable (in the case of online sources) and an archived version is not available, delete the entry and replace it with another source if possible.
APA also has specific formatting practices for translated, reprinted, republished, religious, and classical works, the details of which can be found at apastyple.apa.org or in the print manual.
McCarthy, C. (1998). Cities of the plain. Alfred A. Knopf.
Basic Template: Author(s). (Year of publication). Title. Publisher. DOI if available or URL.
Note: Ebook format, platform, or device (ex. Kindle) is not included in the reference.
Walsh, C. J. (2009). In the wake of the sun: Navigating the southern works of Cormac McCarthy. Newfound Press. https://doi.org/10.7290/V7MW2F2T
American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Delusional Disorder. In Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev., pp. 104-108).
Note: Spell out the complete name of a group/institutional author in the reference list. When the author and publisher are the same, omit the publisher from the source element.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2014). Principles to actions: Ensuring mathematical success for all. Corwin Press.
Springhouse Corporation. (2002). Assessment made incredibly easy.
Note: Use the abbreviation “Ed.” (or “Eds.” for more than one editor) in parentheses.
Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. Russell Sage Foundation.
Basic Template: Author’s name. (Date). Title of chapter or entry. In Editor’s Name (Ed.), Title of book (Vol. #, pp. #). Publisher.
Note: Begin the entry with the chapter’s author.
Haybron, D. M. (2008). Philosophy and the science of subjective well-being. In M. Eid & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 17-43). Guilford Press.
Note: Start with the article or chapter title.
Witchcraft trials. (2003). In B. Steiger & S. H. Steiger (Eds.), The Gale encyclopedia of the unusual and unexplained (Vol. 2, pp. 99-108). Gale.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, Policy and Program Studies Service. (2016). The state of racial diversity in the educator workforce. https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/highered/racial-diversity/state-racial-diversity-workforce.pdf
Basic Template: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Article title. Journal Title, Vol.#(Issue #), page #s. DOI or URL if applicable
Edmondson, J. (2002). The will of the people. The Reading Teacher, 55(5), 452-454.
Alnajashi, H., & Jabbad, R. (2020). Behavioral practices of patients with Multiple Sclerosis during Covid-19 pandemic. PLoS ONE, 15(10), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241103
Sanders, M. T., Welsh, J. A., Bierman, K. L., & Heinrichs, B. S. (2020). Promoting resilience: A preschool intervention enhances the adolescent adjustment of children exposed to early adversity. School Psychology, 35(5), 285–298. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq000040
Guanming, R. & Chen, X. (2017). The impact of top-down prediction on emotional face processing in social anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1269. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01269
Basic Template: Author(s). (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine, Volume # (Issue Number), page #s. DOI or URL if applicable
Cortese, A. (1998, January 26). There’s more than one way to play monopoly. BusinessWeek, 3562(1), 36.
Cahan, E. & O’Grady, C. (2020, June 6). Charities that fund research face deep revenue declines. Science, 368(6498), 1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.368.6498.1412
Campbell, C. (2020, July, 2). China appears to have tamed a second wave of coronavirus in just 21 days with no deaths. Time. https://time.com/5862482/china-beijing-coronavirus-second-wave-covid19-xinfadi/
Haney, D. Q. (1998, February 20). Finding eats at mystery of appetite. The Oregonian.
Rosenberg, Carol. (2025, September 10). A new 9/11 generation: These children promise to never forget. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/09/10/us/politics/911-september-11-2001-attack-children
Fishbein, R. (2020, June 29). Oh God, skip the gym!!! Jezebel. https://jezebel.com/oh-god-skip-the-gym-1844212390
Basic Template: Author(s). (Date of publication). Title of document. Website. URL
Hedges, C. (2020, June 2). The treason of the ruling class. Common Dreams. https://www.commondreams.org/views/2020/06/02/treason-ruling-class
National Alliance to End Homelessness. (2015, April 28). We’re demystifying data on homelessness. https://endhomelessness.org/were-demystifying-data-on-homelessness/
Amnesty International. (n.d.). Arms control. https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/arms-control/
Note: Treat the person or group who uploaded the video as the author.
SockStudios. (2023, June 16). Can you survive a zombie apocalypse [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/J1pB2mSvuos
Note: Treat the host(s) as the author(s).
Khachiyan, A. & Nekrasova, D. (Hosts). (2019, August 30). Manhattan murder mystery (No. 114) [Audio podcast episode]. In Red Scare. Apple Podcasts.
Astrof, J. & Ottesen, P. (Writers), & Burrows, J. (Director). (1994, November 3). The one with the blackout (Season 1, Episode 7) [Television series episode]. In K. Bright, M. Kauffman, & D. Crane (Executive producers), Friends. Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc.
Thomas, J. & McLaren, M. (Producers), & Linklater, R. (Director). (2006). Fast food nation [DVD]. Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment.
Bissell, R., Collins, S., & Rosner-Meyer, L. (Executive producers) & Ross, G. (Director). (2012). The hunger games [Motion picture]. Lionsgate.
Gates, B. (2020, June). How the pandemic will shape the near future [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/bill_gates_how_the_pandemic_will_shape_the_near_future
Gennari, J. (2020, Februrary 20). I might be less rich in 2020. [Status update]. Facebook. http://bit.ly/2JXqPID
Gennari, J. [@jgennari]. (2020, February 20). Wealthy Pittsburgh man looks for meaning [Photograph]. Instagram. https://www.instagram.com/p/BrpHjpFAs3A/
Halper, K. [@kthalps]. (2020, February 23). Who is this totally unhinged person who doesn’t even realize she just shared a sick and sadistic fantasy [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/kthalps/status/1231618658377572353
Basic Template: Author(s). (Year of publication.) Title (# edition.). Publisher. URL
Conerly, T. R., Holmes, K., & Tamang, A. L. (2021). Introduction to sociology (3rd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction
Basic Template: Lastname, F. M. (Year, Month Date). Title of presentation [Document Type (Word doc, PowerPoint slides, etc)]. Publisher. URL
Kukielka, C. (2019, Jan. 15). ANTH 115: Week 2: The death of the west. [PowerPoint slides]. Brightspace. https://www.blackboard.chatham.edu/anth115.
O'Donnell, K. (2020, Feb. 15). Lecturing librarians. [Word document]. Canvas. https://www.canvas.harvard.edu/library101
Student papers usually include a title page, page numbers, text, and a reference list, but they may also have tables, figures, or appendices. To format your paper:
Student papers no longer include a running head (as of the 7th edition). They do not typically include an author note or an abstract (unless requested by your professor).
Sample APA papers are posted at the APA Style website, apastyle.apa.org.
Begin your paper with a title page. Unless instructed otherwise, to format the title page:
After the title page, the first page of text should appear. To format the first page of text:
The Reference list is at the end of the paper on a separate page after the text. To format the Reference list:
The APA Style website at apastyle.org provides detailed instructions on formatting tables, figures, and appendices.
Authors should use language that is free of bias (the implied or irrelevant judgment of the subject they are writing about), which reflects APA's commitment to the advancement of science and the fair treatment of individuals and groups. Writers should avoid perpetuating demeaning attitudes, implying prejudicial beliefs, or biased assumptions against persons based on age, disability, gender, participation in research, racial or ethnic identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, or some combination of these or other personal factors (such as marital status, immigration status, religion, and more).
It is important to use the terms that individuals and/or communities use to describe themselves, their experiences, and their practices. Asking people from the groups about which you are writing to provide feedback or consulting self-advocacy groups to determine appropriate terminology are ideal practices.
In addition, APA provides the following guidelines to help writers choose affirming and inclusive language. Use good judgment, if your writing reflects respect for your participants and audience and you write with appropriate specificity and precision, you will contribute to accurate, unbiased communication.
Choose words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias or prejudicial connotations. Be mindful to focus on and describe only relevant characteristics of your subjects. When there are multiple relevant characteristics to discuss, address the ways they intersect as appropriate. Acknowledge any relevant differences that do exist, and consider differences in terms of the target population instead of the dominant group. When describing characteristics, choose terms that are appropriately specific, depending on the research question and present state of knowledge in the field. This helps readers understand the generalizability of your findings and if your data can be used in meta-analysis or replicated.
Examples of being more specific include using:
Respect the language people use to describe themselves and adopt that language, being mindful that it may change over time or there may be disagreement within groups about the terminology they use. Use extreme caution before repeating slurs or stigmatizing language that individuals may use to describe themselves.
Acknowledge and respect a person's individuality and humanity. Avoid using adjectives as nouns to label people (the poor) or labels that equate people with their condition (e.g., amnesiacs), unless the group or community uses it themselves. Instead, using adjectival forms (e.g., older adults) or nouns with descriptive phrases (e.g., people living in poverty). Both person-first or identity-first language may be appropriate depending on a group's preference.
If using operational definitions and labels, describe participants thereafter in terms of the measures used to classify them. Ensure labels are descriptive, clear, and appropriate.
Compare groups with care, being mindful not to use one group as the standard against which others are judged. Be wary of using the word 'normal' and use parallel designations for groups, especially if presenting racial and ethnic information. When referring to multiple groups, thoughtfully consider the order in which to present them, as the first-mentioned group may be implied to be the norm or standard. Do not put groups in order of social dominance by default; consider using alphabetical order or sample size order. List groups in the same order consistently throughout your project.
Report age as part of the description of participants in the Method section. Be specific in providing ranges, means, and medians and avoid open-ended and broad definitions. Use the terms individuals use to self-describe and be careful of using gendered terms. Avoid using othering terms that connotate a stereotype or suggest that members of the group are not part of society. Avoid negative and fatalistic attitudes towards aging. Be sure your language conveys that aging is a normal part of the human experience and is separate from disease and disorder. Generational descriptors such as "baby boomers," "Gen X," "millennials," "centennials," "Gen Z," and others should only be used when discussing research or studies related to the topic of generations.
Disability is a broad term defined in many ways and encompasses physical, psychological, intellectual, and socioemotional impairments. Groups or members of groups of people with disabilities may have different preferences for how they self-describe and want others to use when describing them. Honoring their preferences demonstrates professional awareness, shows respect, and offers solidarity.
While the language to use to describe disability is evolving, the overall principle for using disability language is to maintain the worth and dignity of all individuals as human beings. Authors are encouraged to use terms and descriptions that honor and explain both person-first (e.g., a person with epilepsy) and identity-first (e.g., amputee) perspectives. Either approach or a mixed approach is permissible unless or until you know the individual or group's preference, at which point you should adopt that preference. Seek guidance from self-advocacy groups or the participants you may be working with directly.
The nature of a disability should be indicated when it is relevant. Within a group, there may be additional heterogeneity that should be indicated if relevant. However, negative and condescending language or labels that imply restriction should be avoided (e.g. instead of confined to a wheelchair and wheelchair-bound, use wheelchair user, instead of AIDS victim, use person with AIDS, instead of brain damaged, use person with a traumatic brain injury), as well as terms that can be regarded as slurs (e.g. nuts, alcoholic, meth addict). Avoid condescending euphemisms (e.g. special needs, physically challenged). Describe the nuances of an individual's experience, their strengths and weaknesses, and capabilities and concerns specifically to avoid reducing them to deficiencies.
Gender can add additional specificity to research findings, however, precision is essential when writing about gender and sex without bias. Terms related to gender identity and sexual orientation have evolved quickly, so use the terms that people use to describe themselves (unless they may be considered a slur if used by an outsider to that group).
Terms related to gender and sex are often conflated. Gender refers to the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that are culturally associated with a person's biological sex (defined in the APA's Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients, 2012). It is a social construct and social identity and should be used when referring to people as social groups. Sex refers to biological sex assignment and should be used when this biological distinction is predominant. Using gender over sex also avoids confusion with sexual behavior. In some cases where there is not a clear distinction between biological or acculturative factors, a discussion of both gender and sex will be appropriate.
Gender identity refers to a person's psychological sense of their gender and is a characteristic that applies to all individuals. Gender identity should not be confused with sexual orientation. Authors should explicitly state information about gender identities of sample or study participants. Be sure to use gender identities according to the stated identities of the people you are describing and clearly define how labels are used within your writing. Refer to all people by the name they use to refer to themselves, which may be different than their legal or birth name. Avoid gendered terms such as "mankind" or gendered endings, such as in occupational titles (e.g. instead of policeman, use police officer). If using sources that use these terms, add the historical context in which these terms were used.
Avoid the term "preferred pronouns," as 'identified pronouns,' "self-identified pronouns," or just "pronouns" is more inclusive and avoids the implication that gender identity is a choice. When writing about a known individual, use their identified pronouns. When gender is irrelevant in context of your research, or when an individual's identified pronouns are not known, use "they," "them," and "theirs" to avoid assumptions about gender identity, sexist bias, and ostracization of the reader that may occur with the use of "he" or "she" and its forms. Avoid combinations such as "he or she" or "he/she," or referring to one sex or gender as the "opposite sex" or "opposite gender" as it implies a binary nature of gender. Instead, choose "they" and to use "another sex" or "another gender" in those situations.
Use terms that indicate the specific context or setting of research (e.g., patients, participants, clients, subjects). More descriptive terms, such as "college students" or "respondents" are also acceptable. With all contexts, respect any individual and/or cultural preferences. Be aware of the difference between a case, which is an occurrence of a disorder or illness, and a person who is affected by the disorder or illness. Explain broad clinical terms, such as "borderline" or "at risk" if used, but use them carefully to avoid obscuring the meaning of these terms. Specify who is at risk and the nature of that risk. Across contexts, write about the people who participated in research in a way that acknowledges their contributions and agency. Use active voice and professional language, and avoid the term "failed," choosing instead "did not complete" to prevent implications of personal shortcomings.
Terms used to refer to racial and ethnic groups change over time; preferred designations vary greatly and terms can come to hold negative connotations as they become dated. When describing racial and ethnic groups, be appropriately sensitive to labels you use. Race refers to physical differences that groups and cultures consider culturally significant, ethnicity refers to shared cultural characteristics (such as language, ancestry, practices, and beliefs). Be clear about whether you are referring to a racial group or an ethnic group, as race is not a universal social construct. Whenever possible, use the racial and/or ethnic terms your participants or subjects use to describe themselves and make sure the categories you use are as clear and specific as possible.
Be careful to avoid nonparallel designations when comparing groups. When writing about non-White racial and ethnic groups collectively, terms such as "people of color" or "underrepresented groups" are more appropriate and inclusive than "minorities," which may be viewed as being less than, oppressed, or deficient in comparison with the majority. Do not assume that members of minority groups are underprivileged, and use the terms "economically marginalized" or "economically exploited" or more specific terms to refer to discrimination or systematic oppression as a whole, instead of "underprivileged."
Sexual orientation includes "a person's sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction," (defined in the APA's Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People, 2015). All people choose their partners regardless of their sexual orientation and sexual orientation itself is not a choice. Thus, the term "sexual orientation" should be used and "sexual preference," and "sexual identity," should be avoided.
Examples of sexual orientation include lesbian, gay, heterosexual, straight, asexual, bisexual, queer, polysexual, and pansexual). Designations are ever-evolving and self-identification is best whenever possible. The umbrella term "sexual and gender minorities" can be used to refer to multiple groups or write about sexual orientation and gender diversity. Abbreviations such as LGBTQ, LGBTQ+, LGBTQIA, and LBGTQIA+ may also be used to refer to multiple groups, although LGBT is now considered outdated. If you use an abbreviation, define it, and ensure it is representative of the groups you are writing about. Be specific about the groups to which you are referring, and do not use the above abbreviations to refer to a single group.
Avoid the terms "gays," "homosexual," and "homosexuality." Instead, use specific or identity-first terms (gay men, gay people, bisexual people, queer people) which refer to identities and to the culture and communities that have developed among those who share those identities. Using the term "homosexual" is inaccurate to describe these many communities and the term "homosexuality" has been and continues to be associated with negative stereotypes, pathology, and the reduction of people's identities to their sexual behavior. "Straight" and "heterosexual" are appropriate to use, with "straight" indicating sexual orientation is not just a dichotomy.
Because socioeconomic status (SES) is complex and encompasses income, educational attainment, occupational prestige, and subjective perceptions of social status and class, using precise terminology is essential to minimizing bias. Provide as much detail as possible about people's income, education, and occupations or employment circumstances. Avoid using broad, pejorative, and generalizing terms to discuss SES. The terms "the homeless," "inner-city," "ghetto," "the projects," "poverty stricken," and "welfare reliant" have negative connotations and should be avoided. Instead, specific, person-first language should be used, such as "mothers who receive TANF benefits" rather than "welfare mothers."
Historically, terms such as "low-income" and "poor" have served as implicit descriptors for racial and/or ethnic minority groups, so including racial and/or ethnic descriptors within SES categories is critical to specificity. Be careful of perpetuating implicit biases by using deficit-based language that blames individuals for their situation rather than recognizing a broader societal context that influences individual circumstances. Deficit language should also be avoided in favor of strengths based language.
When writing about personal characteristics, writers should also be mindful of intersectionality, the way individuals are shaped and identify themselves in a vast array of contexts. Intersectionality is a framework that addresses the multiple dimensions of identity and social systems that combine to create different modes of discrimination and privilege and can result in marginalized identities. A person can have multiple identities and identify with the experiences of multiple social groups. But they may not share all of the perspectives and experiences of those social groups due to their unique position. The privilege of one context may intersect with the oppression in another.
To address intersectionality in a research project, identify an individual's relevant characteristics and group memberships and describe how these characteristics and memberships intersect in ways relevant to the study or topic. When reporting and interpreting results, do not assume one characteristic alone is responsible for the findings. Be sure to consider and note the impact of any intersections on the findings.
The above is an abbreviated version of the guidelines appearing in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition. See 5: Bias-Free Language Guidelines in the Manual, pages 131-149, for APA's full guidance on inclusive language. Additional examples of bias-free language can be found online at the APA Style website.